From a design stand point they should be nearly equal with the single story coming in at slightly less. The reality tends to be that your choices in finishes will have a larger impact on the price than the difference between single or two story.

Kind of, none of the above.

By our best models the creation of the universe is exactly that, the creation of the universe. Both space and time, as we experience them start there.

So, let’s look at this from another view point. Can you view all of space from an outside point of view? Well, not in any way we can experience. Also, we need the passage of time to witness things. even a photo is a point in time, so without time we aren’t setup to witness things.

So, to experience before the creation of the universe requires two things that don’t exist. Ergo, from our point of view there is no “before” the creation of the universe.

Type V construction is exemplified by wood-framed light commercial or residential construction. It can be superior to this and even be constructed of concrete and steel, but it only needs to meet the fire safety of wood-framed construction.

Type III construction will have a heavy fire-resistant outer barrier with much lighter interior construction. You see this in a lot of urban non-high-rise construction. Concrete or masonry exterior walls are common with wood or light gauge metal framed interiors. Interior corridors, stairways, and shafts get additional protection as well.

NO!

Pressure-treated wood products are infused with poisons for incests. Normally it is used in locations that are less likely to be encounter by people.

Touching it isn’t the problem, but ingesting any of the dust or liquids that have come into contact with pressure-treated lumber will eventually make you sick if you continue to encounter it.

First and foremost the Post Office isn’t allowed to turn a profit. Or at least any excess money received by the Post Office can not be dispersed as profit income or similar corporate tools. It must be held in trust by the Post Office to cover future expenses as defined by the US Congress which controls their budget.

The bulk of modern day post office buildings started being built in the mid 1930s tapered off from the mid 1970s into the 1980s. Most of these buildings was assumed to have an operational lifespan of 70–100 years. As time ground on a series of bookkeeping tricks employed due the increasing rules being handed down by Congress every few years as the political make of Congress changed. Government contractors tend to have fewer rules to abide by government employees, and typically that boils down to cheaper to operate. So, the government looks for a buyer of the facility they inhabit with a guarantee of tenancy for the foreseeable future. The terms allow for the building to purchased at a reduced price, and the maintenance of the building is calculated at a price which ends up below the estimated future costs of the labor. This ends up with free rent and services for a decade or so and lower future costs in running and maintaining the building than the Post Office was already committed to paying.

So on paper it shows that the Post Office has saved the taxpayers a lot of money.

Yes. Most jurisdictions allow you to proceed provided the following:

• You are doing the same use. Such as the previous tenant did manufacturing in the facility and also wish to do so. You will need to check with the city about local definitions of use.
• You are not making structural changes to the building.
• You are not changing the appearance of the exterior short of general maintenance. Such as painting, which generally would be fine.
• Things like new building signs will require permits, but they are lesser than building permits.

I understand that the question asker is really asking that since virtually all beam scenarios require designing for the moment condition why bother to do shear at all.

But, if you start with that premise I would ask do you know under which conditions shear forces overtake moment forces? How about when 5 forces are applied? How about 25?

As that number increases so does the difficulty of the answer. Sure, it’s likely the moment, but do you really want to find out you were wrong?

And, it’s ethically irresponsible to not determine the actual conditions.

At least where I practice, California, civil engineers can design any type of building expect for hospitals. But, just like architects, while they are allowed to design these their design will be questioned with a mind that this is allowable but unusual behavior for that license.

As an architect, I face similar problems when I supply my own structural design and calculations. Very few architects do that on projects more complex than a house, but if you are competent in your engineering most jurisdictions will allow you to proceed.

Practical tests and empirical data have shown that deformed bars (rebar) hold very well in concrete to the point that the concrete or rebar itself fractures and breaks off before movement occurs. The point of the overlap is to prevent a weak spot along the member. Overlap is usually defined as 36–48 diamaters of the rebar in question. This gives a large factor of safety in the design.

Welding requires additional equipment and personal present to perform. Typically, this is done due to gap requirements (allowing aggregate to pass between rebar pieces), special coatings on the rebar, or deployment in case of nested cages. I have come across a few industries that choose to always weld, but that usually ends up being for other considerations such as the amount of rebar used in a project.

Type II structures tend towards larger structures or hazard limited structures. Type IIA is more restrictive than Type IIB, but allows for larger areas as a trade-off.

Firstly, all bearing elements (columns, beams, shearwalls, bearing walls…) must be non-combustible. Type IIA also requires that all bearing elements be 1-hour fire-rated in addition to being non-combustible.

Just for the record, non-combustible refers to an element’s resistance to catching fire. Fire-rated refers to amount of time it takes for a full fire (around 1,000 degrees F applied to a sqft or more of the wall surface) to set combustible material (think paper) on fire due to the transfer of heat. This is measured in 1 hour increments up to 4 hours, and some scenarios also use smaller increments.

In most cases using Type IIA will allow between 30%-50% more square footage before requiring separation walls and barriers, but to be honest, the inclusion of fire sprinklers makes a bigger difference.